Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences

Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences

Development and Validation of a Training Package for the Regulation of Hot Executive Functions in Underachieving Gifted Students

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
fatemeh zarezardini 1
hossein kareshki 2
Sakineh Soltani Kouhbanani 2
maryam bordbar 3
1 Ph. D. Student Educational Psychology, Department of Psychology, Counseling & Educational, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
2 Associate professor, Department of Psychology, Counseling & Educational, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
3 Assistant professor, Department of Psychology, Counseling & Educational, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
10.22077/qrbs.2026.10117.1117
Abstract
Background: Hot executive functions, as one of the most important cognitive–emotional components, play a decisive role in the academic performance of gifted students. These functions influence how students cope with failure, regulate emotions in academic situations, and maintain motivation to accomplish long-term tasks. Nevertheless, underachieving gifted students appear to lack sufficient skills and competencies in this domain, and existing research has paid limited attention to this issue. Therefore, designing and implementing specialized training packages aimed at regulating hot executive functions for this group of students seems essential.
Aim: The present study aimed to develop and establish the content validity of a training package for the regulation of hot executive functions in underachieving gifted students.
Method: This study employed a qualitative approach using directed content analysis. The research was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, a training package targeting the regulation of hot executive functions in underachieving gifted students was designed. In the second phase, the content validity of the training package was evaluated by 11 experts in the fields of psychology and educational sciences using a content validity assessment form. To determine content validity, the Content Validity Ratio (CVR; Lawshe’s index) and the Content Validity Index (CVI; Waltz & Bausell’s index) were utilized.
Results: The training package was developed in eight sessions, each lasting 90 minutes. Based on expert judgments, the Content Validity Ratio values for all sessions were not lower than 0.82, and the Content Validity Index values for all sessions exceeded 0.90, indicating an acceptable and desirable level of validity. The results showed that experts considered the inclusion of all sessions and the content of each session to be necessary and relevant. Accordingly, the content validity of the training package was confirmed by the panel of experts.
Conclusions: Given the critical importance of hot executive functions in enhancing academic achievement and successful learning among underachieving gifted students, the design and implementation of a specialized training package for regulating hot executive functions can be considered a potentially effective intervention for facilitating the learning process and improving the academic performance of this group of students.
Keywords
gifted
underachieving
training package
student
hot executive functions
Subjects

References

Alarcón- Espinoza, M., Sanduvete-Chaves, S., Anguera, M. T., Samper Garcia, P., & Chacón- Moscoso, S. (2022). Emotional self- regulation in everyday life: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13(5), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.884756

Alsarayreh, K. S. T., Aladwan, S. K. A., Hassan Rafi, A. S., Als Houbaki, N. H. H., & Al Remawi, S. A. K. A. (2023). Examining the predictive role of self- regulation on characteristics of gifted middle school students in jordan. International Journal of Educational Sciences, 41(1-3), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.31901/24566322.2023/41.1-3.1277

Amiri, F., Viskarmi, H. A., & Sepahvandi, A. M. (2018). Effectiveness of cognitive emotional regulation training on emotional creativity and mental vitality of gifted students in first grade of secondary school. Analytical Cognitive Psychology Quarterly, (33), 47-57. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.28222476.1397.9.33.4.8

Arjomandnia, A., Hosseini, A., & Valizadeh, S. (2018). Effect of emotional self-regulation training on behavioral problems in gifted students with low academic success. Behavioral and Learning Disorders, 1(1), 12-24. https://jbld.ut.ac.ir/article_65203.html?lang=en

Aykutlu, H. C., Dereli, F., Turan, B., Türk Kurtça, T., & Dursun, O. B. (2024). Gifted children and psychiatric disorders: Is the risk increased compared with their peers? Gifted Child Quarterly, 68(3), 226-237. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00169862241239649

Bai, Y., Wang, J., Huo, Y., & Huo, J. (2023). The desire for self-control and academic achievement: The mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement of sixth-grade Chinese students. Current Psychology, 42(25), 21945-21953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03275-9

Barbier, K., Donche, V., & Verschueren, K. (2019). Academic (under) achievement of intellectually gifted students in the transition between primary and secondary education: An individual learner perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2533. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02533

Bennett- Rappell, H., & Northcote, M. (2016). Underachieving gifted students: Two case studies. Issues in Educational Research, 26(3), 407-430. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307590049

Bird, B. M., Levitt, E. E., Stewart, S. H., Wanklyn, S. G., Meyer, E. C., Murphy, J. G., McDevitt-Murphy, M. E. & Mackillop, J. (2024). Posttraumatic stress and delay discounting: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Medicine, 54(3), 437-446. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291723003069

Clark, C. A., Hatton- Bowers, H., Akhavein, K., & Rasby, S. (2023). Growing through adversity: The relation of early childhood educator post-traumatic growth to young children's executive function. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1272294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1272294

Cavicchioli, M., Tobia, V., & Ogliari, A. (2023). Emotion regulation strategies as risk factors for developmental psychopathology: A meta- analytic review of longitudinal studies based on cross-lagged correlations and panel models. Research on child and adolescent psychopathology, 51(3), 295-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00980-8

Desmet, O. A., & Pereira, N. (2022). The achievement motivation enhancement curriculum: Evaluating an affective intervention for gifted students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 33(1), 129-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X211057424

Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529

Duplenne, L., Bourdin, B., Fernandez, D. N., Blondelle, G., & Aubry, A. (2024). Anxiety and depression in gifted individuals: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Gifted Child Quarterly, 68(1), 65-83. https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862231208922

Garon, N. (2016). A review of hot executive functions in preschoolers. Journal of Self- Regulation and Regulation, 2, 57-80. https://doi.org/10.11588/josar.2016.2.34354

Ghiasi, M., Mashhadi, A., & Ghannai Chamanabad, A. (2018). Effectiveness of executive functions training and neurofeedback on academic performance improvement of students. School and Educational Psychology, 7(2), 177-195. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328655272

Gilar-Corbi, R., Veas, A., Miñano, P., & Castejón, J. L. (2019). Differences in personal, familial, social, and school factors between underachieving and non-underachieving gifted secondary students. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2367. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02367

Golparvar, M., Atashpour, H. & Hadipour, M. (2012). Comparison of psychological well-being of gifted female students in gifted schools with gifted female students in ordinary schools. Exceptional Children Quarterly, 12(2), 85-94. https://joec.ir/article-1-161-en.html

Gwet, K. L. (2008). Computing inter- rater reliability and its variance in the presence of high agreement. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61(1), 29-48. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711006X126600

Hailikari, T., Nieminen, J., & Asikainen, H. (2022). The ability of psychological flexibility to predict study success and its relations to cognitive attributional strategies and academic emotions. Educational Psychology, 42(5), 626-643. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2022.2059652

Hassanpour, A., Micaeli Manee, F., Issizadegan, A., Adinevand, A., & Saadatmand, S. (2014). Comparison of the effectiveness of memory skills and emotional self-regulation training on reducing test anxiety in female high school students in urmia during academic year 2012-2013. Psychological Achievements, 21(2), 19-44. https://psychac.scu.ac.ir/article_11859.html?lang=en

Hashemi Nosratabad, T., Alilou, M., Nemati Sugiteppeh, F., & Gholam Rostami, H. (2010). Comparison of executive functions, emotional self-regulation, and motivation in ADHD subtypes based on barkley’s model. Advances in Cognitive Sciences, 12(4), 67-77. https://icssjournal.ir/article-1-183-en.html

Hojjati, M. H. & Baradaran, M. (2023). Comparison of temperament and character dimensions, cognitive emotional regulation, and parenting styles between gifted and normal adolescents. Educational Psychology Skills, 3(14), 11-23. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/psyedu/Article/707490?jid=707490

Hongwanishkul, D., Happaney, K. R., Lee, W. S. C., & Zelazo, P. D. (2005). Assessment of hot and cool executive function in young children: Age- related changes and individual differences. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 617-644. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2802_4

Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277‑1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687

Iuga, I. A., & David, O. A. (2024). Emotion regulation and academic burnout among youth: A quantitative meta- analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 36(3), 106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09930-w

Ivcevic, Z., & Eggers, C. (2021). Emotion regulation ability: Test performance and observer reports in predicting relationship, achievement and well- being outcomes in adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 3204. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063204

Jokar, M. H. (2024). Pathology of gifted schools (sampaad) at middle school level from students’ perspectives. Counseling and Guidance (Occupational, Family, Rehabilitation), 5(1), 79-89. https://esjournal.ir/fa/paper.php?pid=161

Kahl, T., Grob, A., & Möhring, W. (2021). Does emotion regulation compensate deficits in various executive functions in children's and adolescents' mathematical achievement? Learning and Individual Differences, 89, 1-9. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102034

Kajbaf, M. B., Molavi, H., & Shirazi Tehrani, A. (2003). Relationship between motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning strategies with academic performance of high school students. Advances in Cognitive Sciences, 5(1), 27-33 .https://icssjournal.ir/article-1-131-en.html

Kerr, A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2004). Development of “hot” executive function: The children’s gambling task. Brain and Cognition, 55(1), 148-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00275-6

Kovalčíková, I., Veerbeek, J., Vogelaar, B., Klimovič, M., & Gogová, E. (2024). Tracing progress in children’s executive functioning and language abilities related to reading comprehension via exefun- read intervention. Education Sciences, 14(3), 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14030237

Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personal Psychology, 28(4), 563-575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x

Leana- Taşcılar, M. Z. (2024). Psychometric analysis of underachievement tool for gifted students. Cogent Education, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2397167

Lee, N. C., Krabbendam, L., Dekker, S., Boschloo, A., de Groot, R. H. M., & Jolles, J. (2012). Academic motivation mediates the influence of temporal discounting on academic achievement during adolescence. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 1(1), 43-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2012.07.001

Ma, S., & Li, Y. (2023). The impact between self-control on academic performance among chinese adolescents. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 1497-1501. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v8i.4510

Mahdavi, M., Behpouh, A., Hasanzadeh, S., & Sajjadi Anari, S. S. (2020). The effectiveness of hope therapy on promoting mental health and reducing academic burnout in high school students at risk or academic burn-out. Child Mental Health Quarterly, 7(1), 128-140. https://childmentalhealth.ir/article-1-519-en.html

Mărcuș, O., Martins, E. C., Sassu, R., & Visu-Petra, L. (2022). On the importance of being flexible: Early interrelations between affective flexibility, executive functions and anxiety symptoms in preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 192(6), 914-931. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1816995

McCoach, D. B., & Siegle, D. (2003). Factors that differentiate underachieving gifted students from high- achieving gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47(2), 144-154. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620304700205

McGee, C. D. (2013). Motivation, gifted children, and underachievement. Parenting for High Potential, 2(7), 12. https://www.nagc.org/news/parenting-for-high-potential---june-2013

Mofield, E., & Parker Peters, M. (2019). Understanding underachievement: Mindset, perfectionism, and achievement attitudes among gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 42(2), 107-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353219836737

Mohammadinia, Z., Shah Nazari, M., & Nasrollahi, B. (2023). Effectiveness of life skills training (coping with negative mood and stress management) on cognitive regulation strategies in gifted female students. Psychology Journal, 27(1), 96-105. http://journalie.ir/en/Article/38821

Mohammadi, M., Mohammadi, T., & Rezaei, S. (2022). The effect of emotional regulation strategies training on concentration and problem-solving of tenth grade gifted students. Educational Research Journal, 17(71), 191-212. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/educ/Article/940796/FullText

Morosanova, V. I., Bondarenko, I. N., & Fomina, T. G. (2022). Conscious self- regulation, motivational factors, and personality traits as predictors of students' academic performance: A linear empirical model. Psychological Science and Education, 15(4), 170-187. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2022.0411

Manani, R., Abedi, A., Dortaj, F., & Farrokhi, N. A. (2019). The comparison of neuropsychological profile in gifted and talented underachievers and achievers students in mathematics. Neuropsychology, 5(17), 59-88. https://clpsy.journals.pnu.ac.ir/article_6131.html?lang=en

Murray, J., Theakston, A., & Wells, A. (2016). Can the attention training technique turn one marshmallow into two? Improving children's ability to delay gratification. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 77, 34-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.11.009

Nikandam Kermanshahi, H., Safaei- rad, A., Erfani, N., & Yarahmadi, Y. (2021). Structural model of emotional regulation difficulties and academic burnout: The mediating role of academic learned helplessness in students. School and Educational Psychology, 10(4), 123-138. https://jsp.uma.ac.ir/article_1460.html?lang=en

Nouri Moghadam, S., & Moridi, A. A. (2022). Comparison of cognitive emotional regulation, mindfulness, and cognitive flexibility strategies in gifted and normal students during covid-19 home quarantine. Educational Psychology Studies, 19(45), 87-104. https://jeps.usb.ac.ir/article_6683.html?lang=en

Obergriesser, S., & Stoeger, H. (2015). The role of emotions, motivation, and learning behavior in underachievement and results of an intervention. High Ability Studies, 26(1), 167-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2015.1043003

Odum, A. L. (2011). Delay discounting: I’m a k, you’re a k. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 96(3), 427-439. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.2011.96-423

Owan, V. J., Ukam, C. U., & Egame, E. A. (2023). Beyond school grades: Measuring students’ learning outcomes and the emergence of achievers and underachievers. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 5(3), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.202320925

Ranjbar Nosher, M., Shokri, O., & Fathabadi, J. (2023). A phenomenological analysis of gifted underachievers' perceptions of parenting practices. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences (QRBS), 1(2), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.22077/qrbs.2023.6757.1025

Ranjbar, S., Afrooz, G., Ghasemzadeh, S., & Ghabari Bonab, B. (2024). Designing a family- centered emotional regulation program and examining its effectiveness on social, emotional, and academic adjustment of gifted adolescents at risk of emotional and behavioral problems. Scientific Researchers Journal, 22(3), 191-201. https://psj.umsha.ac.ir/article-1-1104-en.html

Raoof, K., Shokri, O., Fathabadi, J., & Panaghi, L. (2024). Unpacking the underachievement of gifted students: A systematic review of internal and external factors. Heliyon, 10(17), e36908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36908

Razali, F., Majid, N. A., Azrin, A. A. M., & Quah, W. B. (2024). Exploring academic performance among gifted and talented students: A comprehensive review. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 13(1), 334-347. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v13-i1/20144

Reis, S. M., & McCoach, D. B. (2000). The underachievement of gifted students: What do we know and where do we go? Gifted Child Quarterly, 44(3), 152-170. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620004400302

Rezaei, S., & Vosoughi, A. (2021). Effectiveness of social competence training program on improving prosocial behaviors in underachieving gifted students. Social Psychology Research, 11(43), 123-140. https://www.socialpsychology.ir/article_142645.html?lang=en

Rimm, S. B. (2006). When gifted students underachieve: What you can do about it. Prufrock Press Inc. https://www.amazon.com/Students-Underachieve-Practical-Strategies-Education/dp/1593631936

Eslami rad, A. S., Salarifar, M. H., & Rezaei, M. (2025). Development and validation of a training package for regulating hot and cold cognition. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences (QRBS), 4(1), 17-34. https://qrbs.birjand.ac.ir/article_3589.html?lang=en

Samadi, Z., Golizadeh, Z. & Mirzaei, L. (2023). Meta- analysis of the effectiveness of emotional regulation strategies training on components of academic performance. Social Psychology, 11(68), 53-75. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/psychology/Article/925451

Samimi, Z., & Hosseini, J. (2016). Effectiveness of emotional working memory training on emotional cognitive regulation strategies in adolescents with post- traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Studies, 5(4), 99-108. https://jcps.atu.ac.ir/article_4561.html?lang=en

Shafiee Rad, H., & Jafarpour, A. (2022). Effects of well- being, grit, emotion regulation, and resilience interventions on L2 learners’ writing skills. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 39(3), 228-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2022.2096517

Snyder, K. E., & Linnenbrink- Garcia, L. A. (2013). A developmental, person- centered approach to exploring multiple motivational pathways in gifted underachievement. Educational Psychology, 48(4), 209-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2013.835597

Steenbergen- Hu, S., Olszewski- Kubilius, P., & Calvert, E. (2020). The effectiveness of current interventions to reverse the underachievement of gifted students: Findings of a meta-analysis and systematic review. Gifted Child Quarterly, 64(2), 132-165. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2020-20194-006

Tasca, I., Guidi, M., Turriziani, P., Mento, G., & Tarantino, V. (2024). Behavioral and socio-emotional disorders in intellectual giftedness: A systematic review. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 55(3), 768-789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01420-w

Usán Supervía, P., & Quílez Robres, A. (2021). Emotional regulation and academic performance in the academic context: The mediating role of self-efficacy in secondary education students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 5715. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115715

Waltz, C. F., & Bausell, B. R. (1981). Nursing research: Design statistics and computer analysis. F. A. Davis Company. https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/578318

Watts, T. W., Duncan, G. J., & Quan, H. (2018). Revisiting the marshmallow test: A conceptual replication investigating links between early delay of gratification and later outcomes. Psychological Science, 29(7), 1159-1177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618761661

White, S. L. J., Graham, L., & Blaas, S. (2018). Why do we know so little about the factors associated with gifted underachievement? A systematic literature review. Educational Research Review, 24, 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.001

Wilson, J., Hogan, C., Wang, S., Andrews, G., & Shum, D. H. K. (2021). Relations between executive functions, theory of mind, and functional outcomes in middle childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 46(7), 518-536. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2021.1988086

Yavari, H., Sheivandi Cholicheh, K., Dortaj, F., Rezayi, S., & Asadzadeh, H. (2024). Development of a cognitive empowerment training package based on the executive functions of the brain and its effectiveness on the academic competence of low- achieving gifted students of the sixth grade. Journal of Applied Psychological Research, e99490. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2024.372908.644869

Zare Zardini, F., Karshaki, H., Soltani Kouhbandani, S., & Bardbar, M. (2025). Executive functions and academic underachievement: Comparison of hot executive functions in gifted students with high and low academic achievement. Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 4(2), 133-152. https://journals.cfu.ac.ir/article_4405.html?lang=en

Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2020). The neurodevelopment of executive function skills: Implications for academic achievement gaps. Psychology & Neuroscience, 13(3), 273-298. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000208

Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445-469). Blackwell Publishing. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/9780470996652.ch20

Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., & Guo, C. (2019). Executive function and resilience as mediators of adolescents' perceived stressful life events and school adjustment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00446

Ziegler, A., & Stoeger, H. (2017). Systemic gifted education: A theoretical introduction. Gifted Child Quarterly, 61(3), 183-193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217705713

References
Alarcón- Espinoza, M., Sanduvete-Chaves, S., Anguera, M. T., Samper Garcia, P., & Chacón- Moscoso, S. (2022). Emotional self- regulation in everyday life: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13(5), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.884756
Alsarayreh, K. S. T., Aladwan, S. K. A., Hassan Rafi, A. S., Als Houbaki, N. H. H., & Al Remawi, S. A. K. A. (2023). Examining the predictive role of self- regulation on characteristics of gifted middle school students in jordan. International Journal of Educational Sciences, 41(1-3), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.31901/24566322.2023/41.1-3.1277
Amiri, F., Viskarmi, H. A., & Sepahvandi, A. M. (2018). Effectiveness of cognitive emotional regulation training on emotional creativity and mental vitality of gifted students in first grade of secondary school. Analytical Cognitive Psychology Quarterly, (33), 47-57. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.28222476.1397.9.33.4.8
Arjomandnia, A., Hosseini, A., & Valizadeh, S. (2018). Effect of emotional self-regulation training on behavioral problems in gifted students with low academic success. Behavioral and Learning Disorders, 1(1), 12-24. https://jbld.ut.ac.ir/article_65203.html?lang=en
Aykutlu, H. C., Dereli, F., Turan, B., Türk Kurtça, T., & Dursun, O. B. (2024). Gifted children and psychiatric disorders: Is the risk increased compared with their peers? Gifted Child Quarterly, 68(3), 226-237. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00169862241239649
Bai, Y., Wang, J., Huo, Y., & Huo, J. (2023). The desire for self-control and academic achievement: The mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement of sixth-grade Chinese students. Current Psychology, 42(25), 21945-21953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03275-9
Barbier, K., Donche, V., & Verschueren, K. (2019). Academic (under) achievement of intellectually gifted students in the transition between primary and secondary education: An individual learner perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2533. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02533
Bennett- Rappell, H., & Northcote, M. (2016). Underachieving gifted students: Two case studies. Issues in Educational Research, 26(3), 407-430. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307590049
Bird, B. M., Levitt, E. E., Stewart, S. H., Wanklyn, S. G., Meyer, E. C., Murphy, J. G., McDevitt-Murphy, M. E. & Mackillop, J. (2024). Posttraumatic stress and delay discounting: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Medicine, 54(3), 437-446. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291723003069
Clark, C. A., Hatton- Bowers, H., Akhavein, K., & Rasby, S. (2023). Growing through adversity: The relation of early childhood educator post-traumatic growth to young children's executive function. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1272294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1272294
Cavicchioli, M., Tobia, V., & Ogliari, A. (2023). Emotion regulation strategies as risk factors for developmental psychopathology: A meta- analytic review of longitudinal studies based on cross-lagged correlations and panel models. Research on child and adolescent psychopathology, 51(3), 295-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00980-8
Desmet, O. A., & Pereira, N. (2022). The achievement motivation enhancement curriculum: Evaluating an affective intervention for gifted students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 33(1), 129-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X211057424
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
Duplenne, L., Bourdin, B., Fernandez, D. N., Blondelle, G., & Aubry, A. (2024). Anxiety and depression in gifted individuals: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Gifted Child Quarterly, 68(1), 65-83. https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862231208922
Garon, N. (2016). A review of hot executive functions in preschoolers. Journal of Self- Regulation and Regulation, 2, 57-80. https://doi.org/10.11588/josar.2016.2.34354
Ghiasi, M., Mashhadi, A., & Ghannai Chamanabad, A. (2018). Effectiveness of executive functions training and neurofeedback on academic performance improvement of students. School and Educational Psychology, 7(2), 177-195. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328655272
Gilar-Corbi, R., Veas, A., Miñano, P., & Castejón, J. L. (2019). Differences in personal, familial, social, and school factors between underachieving and non-underachieving gifted secondary students. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2367. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02367
Golparvar, M., Atashpour, H. & Hadipour, M. (2012). Comparison of psychological well-being of gifted female students in gifted schools with gifted female students in ordinary schools. Exceptional Children Quarterly, 12(2), 85-94. https://joec.ir/article-1-161-en.html
Gwet, K. L. (2008). Computing inter- rater reliability and its variance in the presence of high agreement. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61(1), 29-48. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711006X126600
Hailikari, T., Nieminen, J., & Asikainen, H. (2022). The ability of psychological flexibility to predict study success and its relations to cognitive attributional strategies and academic emotions. Educational Psychology, 42(5), 626-643. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2022.2059652
Hassanpour, A., Micaeli Manee, F., Issizadegan, A., Adinevand, A., & Saadatmand, S. (2014). Comparison of the effectiveness of memory skills and emotional self-regulation training on reducing test anxiety in female high school students in urmia during academic year 2012-2013. Psychological Achievements, 21(2), 19-44. https://psychac.scu.ac.ir/article_11859.html?lang=en
Hashemi Nosratabad, T., Alilou, M., Nemati Sugiteppeh, F., & Gholam Rostami, H. (2010). Comparison of executive functions, emotional self-regulation, and motivation in ADHD subtypes based on barkley’s model. Advances in Cognitive Sciences, 12(4), 67-77. https://icssjournal.ir/article-1-183-en.html
Hojjati, M. H. & Baradaran, M. (2023). Comparison of temperament and character dimensions, cognitive emotional regulation, and parenting styles between gifted and normal adolescents. Educational Psychology Skills, 3(14), 11-23. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/psyedu/Article/707490?jid=707490
Hongwanishkul, D., Happaney, K. R., Lee, W. S. C., & Zelazo, P. D. (2005). Assessment of hot and cool executive function in young children: Age- related changes and individual differences. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 617-644. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2802_4
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277‑1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
Iuga, I. A., & David, O. A. (2024). Emotion regulation and academic burnout among youth: A quantitative meta- analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 36(3), 106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09930-w
Ivcevic, Z., & Eggers, C. (2021). Emotion regulation ability: Test performance and observer reports in predicting relationship, achievement and well- being outcomes in adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 3204. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063204
Jokar, M. H. (2024). Pathology of gifted schools (sampaad) at middle school level from students’ perspectives. Counseling and Guidance (Occupational, Family, Rehabilitation), 5(1), 79-89. https://esjournal.ir/fa/paper.php?pid=161
Kahl, T., Grob, A., & Möhring, W. (2021). Does emotion regulation compensate deficits in various executive functions in children's and adolescents' mathematical achievement? Learning and Individual Differences, 89, 1-9. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102034
Kajbaf, M. B., Molavi, H., & Shirazi Tehrani, A. (2003). Relationship between motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning strategies with academic performance of high school students. Advances in Cognitive Sciences, 5(1), 27-33 .https://icssjournal.ir/article-1-131-en.html
Kerr, A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2004). Development of “hot” executive function: The children’s gambling task. Brain and Cognition, 55(1), 148-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00275-6
Kovalčíková, I., Veerbeek, J., Vogelaar, B., Klimovič, M., & Gogová, E. (2024). Tracing progress in children’s executive functioning and language abilities related to reading comprehension via exefun- read intervention. Education Sciences, 14(3), 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14030237
Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personal Psychology, 28(4), 563-575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x
Leana- Taşcılar, M. Z. (2024). Psychometric analysis of underachievement tool for gifted students. Cogent Education, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2397167
Lee, N. C., Krabbendam, L., Dekker, S., Boschloo, A., de Groot, R. H. M., & Jolles, J. (2012). Academic motivation mediates the influence of temporal discounting on academic achievement during adolescence. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 1(1), 43-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2012.07.001
Ma, S., & Li, Y. (2023). The impact between self-control on academic performance among chinese adolescents. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 1497-1501. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v8i.4510
Mahdavi, M., Behpouh, A., Hasanzadeh, S., & Sajjadi Anari, S. S. (2020). The effectiveness of hope therapy on promoting mental health and reducing academic burnout in high school students at risk or academic burn-out. Child Mental Health Quarterly, 7(1), 128-140. https://childmentalhealth.ir/article-1-519-en.html
Mărcuș, O., Martins, E. C., Sassu, R., & Visu-Petra, L. (2022). On the importance of being flexible: Early interrelations between affective flexibility, executive functions and anxiety symptoms in preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 192(6), 914-931. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1816995
McCoach, D. B., & Siegle, D. (2003). Factors that differentiate underachieving gifted students from high- achieving gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47(2), 144-154. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620304700205
McGee, C. D. (2013). Motivation, gifted children, and underachievement. Parenting for High Potential, 2(7), 12. https://www.nagc.org/news/parenting-for-high-potential---june-2013
Mofield, E., & Parker Peters, M. (2019). Understanding underachievement: Mindset, perfectionism, and achievement attitudes among gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 42(2), 107-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353219836737
Mohammadinia, Z., Shah Nazari, M., & Nasrollahi, B. (2023). Effectiveness of life skills training (coping with negative mood and stress management) on cognitive regulation strategies in gifted female students. Psychology Journal, 27(1), 96-105. http://journalie.ir/en/Article/38821
Mohammadi, M., Mohammadi, T., & Rezaei, S. (2022). The effect of emotional regulation strategies training on concentration and problem-solving of tenth grade gifted students. Educational Research Journal, 17(71), 191-212. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/educ/Article/940796/FullText
Morosanova, V. I., Bondarenko, I. N., & Fomina, T. G. (2022). Conscious self- regulation, motivational factors, and personality traits as predictors of students' academic performance: A linear empirical model. Psychological Science and Education, 15(4), 170-187. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2022.0411
Manani, R., Abedi, A., Dortaj, F., & Farrokhi, N. A. (2019). The comparison of neuropsychological profile in gifted and talented underachievers and achievers students in mathematics. Neuropsychology, 5(17), 59-88. https://clpsy.journals.pnu.ac.ir/article_6131.html?lang=en
Murray, J., Theakston, A., & Wells, A. (2016). Can the attention training technique turn one marshmallow into two? Improving children's ability to delay gratification. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 77, 34-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.11.009
Nikandam Kermanshahi, H., Safaei- rad, A., Erfani, N., & Yarahmadi, Y. (2021). Structural model of emotional regulation difficulties and academic burnout: The mediating role of academic learned helplessness in students. School and Educational Psychology, 10(4), 123-138. https://jsp.uma.ac.ir/article_1460.html?lang=en
Nouri Moghadam, S., & Moridi, A. A. (2022). Comparison of cognitive emotional regulation, mindfulness, and cognitive flexibility strategies in gifted and normal students during covid-19 home quarantine. Educational Psychology Studies, 19(45), 87-104. https://jeps.usb.ac.ir/article_6683.html?lang=en
Obergriesser, S., & Stoeger, H. (2015). The role of emotions, motivation, and learning behavior in underachievement and results of an intervention. High Ability Studies, 26(1), 167-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2015.1043003
Odum, A. L. (2011). Delay discounting: I’m a k, you’re a k. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 96(3), 427-439. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.2011.96-423
Owan, V. J., Ukam, C. U., & Egame, E. A. (2023). Beyond school grades: Measuring students’ learning outcomes and the emergence of achievers and underachievers. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 5(3), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.202320925
Ranjbar Nosher, M., Shokri, O., & Fathabadi, J. (2023). A phenomenological analysis of gifted underachievers' perceptions of parenting practices. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences (QRBS), 1(2), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.22077/qrbs.2023.6757.1025
Ranjbar, S., Afrooz, G., Ghasemzadeh, S., & Ghabari Bonab, B. (2024). Designing a family- centered emotional regulation program and examining its effectiveness on social, emotional, and academic adjustment of gifted adolescents at risk of emotional and behavioral problems. Scientific Researchers Journal, 22(3), 191-201. https://psj.umsha.ac.ir/article-1-1104-en.html
Raoof, K., Shokri, O., Fathabadi, J., & Panaghi, L. (2024). Unpacking the underachievement of gifted students: A systematic review of internal and external factors. Heliyon, 10(17), e36908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36908
Razali, F., Majid, N. A., Azrin, A. A. M., & Quah, W. B. (2024). Exploring academic performance among gifted and talented students: A comprehensive review. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 13(1), 334-347. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v13-i1/20144
Reis, S. M., & McCoach, D. B. (2000). The underachievement of gifted students: What do we know and where do we go? Gifted Child Quarterly, 44(3), 152-170. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620004400302
Rezaei, S., & Vosoughi, A. (2021). Effectiveness of social competence training program on improving prosocial behaviors in underachieving gifted students. Social Psychology Research, 11(43), 123-140. https://www.socialpsychology.ir/article_142645.html?lang=en
Rimm, S. B. (2006). When gifted students underachieve: What you can do about it. Prufrock Press Inc. https://www.amazon.com/Students-Underachieve-Practical-Strategies-Education/dp/1593631936
Eslami rad, A. S., Salarifar, M. H., & Rezaei, M. (2025). Development and validation of a training package for regulating hot and cold cognition. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences (QRBS), 4(1), 17-34. https://qrbs.birjand.ac.ir/article_3589.html?lang=en
Samadi, Z., Golizadeh, Z. & Mirzaei, L. (2023). Meta- analysis of the effectiveness of emotional regulation strategies training on components of academic performance. Social Psychology, 11(68), 53-75. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/psychology/Article/925451
Samimi, Z., & Hosseini, J. (2016). Effectiveness of emotional working memory training on emotional cognitive regulation strategies in adolescents with post- traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Studies, 5(4), 99-108. https://jcps.atu.ac.ir/article_4561.html?lang=en
Shafiee Rad, H., & Jafarpour, A. (2022). Effects of well- being, grit, emotion regulation, and resilience interventions on L2 learners’ writing skills. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 39(3), 228-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2022.2096517
Snyder, K. E., & Linnenbrink- Garcia, L. A. (2013). A developmental, person- centered approach to exploring multiple motivational pathways in gifted underachievement. Educational Psychology, 48(4), 209-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2013.835597
Steenbergen- Hu, S., Olszewski- Kubilius, P., & Calvert, E. (2020). The effectiveness of current interventions to reverse the underachievement of gifted students: Findings of a meta-analysis and systematic review. Gifted Child Quarterly, 64(2), 132-165. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2020-20194-006
Tasca, I., Guidi, M., Turriziani, P., Mento, G., & Tarantino, V. (2024). Behavioral and socio-emotional disorders in intellectual giftedness: A systematic review. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 55(3), 768-789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01420-w
Usán Supervía, P., & Quílez Robres, A. (2021). Emotional regulation and academic performance in the academic context: The mediating role of self-efficacy in secondary education students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 5715. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115715
Waltz, C. F., & Bausell, B. R. (1981). Nursing research: Design statistics and computer analysis. F. A. Davis Company. https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/578318
Watts, T. W., Duncan, G. J., & Quan, H. (2018). Revisiting the marshmallow test: A conceptual replication investigating links between early delay of gratification and later outcomes. Psychological Science, 29(7), 1159-1177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618761661
White, S. L. J., Graham, L., & Blaas, S. (2018). Why do we know so little about the factors associated with gifted underachievement? A systematic literature review. Educational Research Review, 24, 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.001
Wilson, J., Hogan, C., Wang, S., Andrews, G., & Shum, D. H. K. (2021). Relations between executive functions, theory of mind, and functional outcomes in middle childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 46(7), 518-536. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2021.1988086
Yavari, H., Sheivandi Cholicheh, K., Dortaj, F., Rezayi, S., & Asadzadeh, H. (2024). Development of a cognitive empowerment training package based on the executive functions of the brain and its effectiveness on the academic competence of low- achieving gifted students of the sixth grade. Journal of Applied Psychological Research, e99490. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2024.372908.644869
Zare Zardini, F., Karshaki, H., Soltani Kouhbandani, S., & Bardbar, M. (2025). Executive functions and academic underachievement: Comparison of hot executive functions in gifted students with high and low academic achievement. Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 4(2), 133-152. https://journals.cfu.ac.ir/article_4405.html?lang=en
Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2020). The neurodevelopment of executive function skills: Implications for academic achievement gaps. Psychology & Neuroscience, 13(3), 273-298. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000208
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445-469). Blackwell Publishing. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/9780470996652.ch20
Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., & Guo, C. (2019). Executive function and resilience as mediators of adolescents' perceived stressful life events and school adjustment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00446
Ziegler, A., & Stoeger, H. (2017). Systemic gifted education: A theoretical introduction. Gifted Child Quarterly, 61(3), 183-193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217705713

  • Receive Date 20 September 2025
  • Revise Date 29 December 2025
  • Accept Date 22 January 2026