Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences

Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences

Lived Experience of Negative Emotions Perpetuating Distress Resulting from Romantic Breakup: A Qualitative Study

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Mojtaba Hafezi, 1
Masoud Janbozorgi 2
1 Ph.D. Student Psychology, Department of Psychology, Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, Research Institute of Hawzah and University, Qom, Iran
2 Professor, Department of Psychology, Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, Research Institute of Hawzah and University, Qom, Iran
10.22077/qrbs.2026.10674.1151
Abstract
Background: Romantic breakup can lead to a wide range of clinical outcomes. Various factors have been identified in different studies as causes of post-separation distress, among which negative emotions are one of the most important variables perpetuating distress following separation.
Aim: The aim of this study was to identify the lived experience of negative emotions perpetuating distress resulting from romantic breakup.
Method: This study was based on qualitative interviews with individuals who had experienced romantic breakup and employed Bengtsson’s qualitative content analysis method. The study population comprised all individuals with experience of romantic breakup in the city of Qom. Using purposeful sampling with maximum variation and until saturation of the data, fifteen participants (10 women, 5 men) were examined via semi-structured interviews. The data analysis procedure included the four stages of decontextualisation, recontextualisation, categorisation and the compilation. The trustworthiness of the findings from the qualitative interviews was examined using the four criteria of credibility, confirmability, transferability and dependability according to Lincoln, & Guba. To achieve the criterion of dependability, the findings were evaluated by ten experts through calculation of the content validity index (CVI).
Results: The research findings indicated that the negative emotions perpetuating romantic breakup distress comprise relational wounds and threat to personal identity. Relational wounds included dependency (feeling of dependence arising from affection, feeling of dependence arising from a physical relationship, longing for the sweetness of the relationship, distress about the temporality of the ended relationship, and feeling of emotional emptiness); anger (feeling of hatred and desire for revenge); humiliation (feeling of degradation, feeling of being betrayed, feeling of being a loser, feeling of rejection and feeling of guilt); and threat to personal identity included identity grief (longing for the lovable self and existential shame) and anxiety about the future (fear of failing again and fear of remaining alone).
Conclusions: The results of this study can serve as a basis for developing therapeutic interventions and locally adapted educational packages to reduce clinical symptoms resulting from romantic breakup.
Keywords
romantic breakup
love trauma
negative emotion maintenance
etiology
qualitative content analysis
cultural psychology
Subjects

References

Adamczyk, K. (2018). Direct and indirect effects of relationship status through unmet need to belong and fear of being single on young adults romantic loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 124-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.011

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787

Asayesh, M. H., Qazinejad, N., & Bahonar, F. (2021). Explanation of the emotional reactions of girls with love trauma syndrome: A qualitative study. The Women and Families Cultural-Educational, 15(53), 125-154. https://cwfs.ihu.ac.ir/article_206019.html?lang=en

Bahonar, F., Asayesh, M., & Ghazinezhad, N. (2019). Explanation of behavioral reactions and comparisons girl students with love truma syndrome: A phenomenological study. Woman Cultural Psychology, 41(11), 111-134. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/jwc/Article/920360/FullText

Bengtsson, M. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001

Boon, S. D., Alibhai, A. M., & Deveau, V. L. (2011). Reflections on the costs and benefits of exacting revenge in romantic relationships. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 43(2), 128-137. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0022367

Brumbaugh, C. C., & Fraley, R. C. (2015). Too fast, too soon? An empirical investigation into rebound relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 32(1), 99-118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407514525086

Buss, D. M. (2006). Strategies of human mating. Psihologijske Teme, 15(2), 239-260. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-04636-003

Chung, M. C., & Hunt, L. J. (2014). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and well-being following relationship dissolution: Past trauma, alexithymia, suppression. Psychiatric Quarterly, 85(2), 155-176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-013-9280-4

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage publications. https://collegepublishing.sagepub.com/products/qualitative-inquiry-and-research-design-4-246896

Dindoost, L., Asadpour, I., Zahrakar, K., & Mohsenzadeh, F. (2023). A grounded theory analysis of the experience of repeated love failure among Iranian youth. Journal of Applied Psychological Research, 14(2), 39-68. https://japr.ut.ac.ir/article_93050.html?lang=en

Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327-1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327

Eastwick, P. W., Joel, S., Carswell, K., Molden, D. C., Finkel, E. J., & Blozis, S. A. (2023). Predicting romantic interest during early relationship development: A preregistered investigation using machine learning. European Journal of Personality, 37(3), 276-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/08902070221085877

Field, T., Diego, M., Pelaez, M., Deeds, O., & Delgado, J. (2009). Breakup distress in university students. Adolescence, 44(176), 705-727. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2010.13023

Fisher, H., & Jolly, A. (2004). Books and arts-why we love: The nature and chemistry of romantic love. Nature, 427(6973), 396-397. https://doi.org/10.1038/427396b

Ghafoori, A., Shariat Bagheri, M., & Salehi, K. (2025). Thematic and contextual analysis of the experience of love during adolescence: A systematic review. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences, 4(1), 179-200. https://qrbs.birjand.ac.ir/article_3525.html?lang=en

Gehl, K., Brassard, A., Dugal, C., Lefebvre, A., Daigneault, I., Francoeur, A., & Lecomte, T. (2024). Attachment and breakup distress: The mediating role of coping strategies. Emerging Adulthood, 12(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968231209232

Gómez- López, M., Viejo, C., & Ortega- Ruiz, R. (2019). Well- being and romantic relationships: A systematic review in adolescence and emerging adulthood. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(13), 2415. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132415

Goodwin, R. (2013). Personal relationships across cultures. Routledge. https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/personal-relationships-across-cultures/

Hatfield, E. C., Singelis, T., Levine, T., Bachman, G., Muto, K., & Choo, P. (2007). Love schemas, preferences in romantic partners, and reactions to commitment. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 1(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v1i1.2

Hatfield, E., Rapson, R. L., & Martel, L. D. (2002). Passionate love and sexual desire. Stability and Change in Relationships, 306-324. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511499876.017

Janardhana, N., & Manjula, B. (2017). Adolescent girls in care and protection framework for their romantic relationship. Institutionalised Children Explorations and Beyond, 4(1), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/2349301120170104

Karandashev, V. (2015). A cultural perspective on romantic love. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1135

Kelly, B. D. (2018). Love as delusion, delusions of love: erotomania, narcissism and shame. Medical Humanities, 44(1), 15-19. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2017-011198

Landis, D., & O’Shea III, W. A. (2000). Cross- cultural aspects of passionate love: An individual differences analysis. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology, 31(6), 752-777. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031006005

Larson, G. M., & Sbarra, D. A. (2015). Participating in research on romantic breakups promotes emotional recovery via changes in self- concept clarity. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(4), 399-406. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614563085

Leary, M. R. (2015). Emotional responses to interpersonal rejection. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(4), 435-441. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.4/mleary

Lee, J. A. (1977). A typology of styles of loving. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3(2), 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727700300204

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications. https://www.amazon.com/Naturalistic-Inquiry-Yvonna-S-Lincoln/dp/0803924313

Liveri, K., Dagla, M., Sarantaki, A., Orovou, E., Antoniou, E., & Orovou, E. (2023). Abuse of girls during childhood and its impacts on the health of their adult lives: A systematic review. Cureus, 15(2), e34981. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.34981

Manteqi, M. (2011). The psychology of passionate love. Be’sat. https://ketab.ir/Book/BEADB01B-C8E4-42F9-8292-EA9E67279557

Mason, A. E., Sbarra, D. A., Bryan, A. E. B., & Lee, L. A. (2012). Staying connected when coming apart: The psychological correlates of contact and sex with an ex- partner. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31(5), 488-507. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2012.31.5.488

Millings, A., Hirst, S. L., Sirois, F., & Houlston, C. (2020). Emotional adaptation to relationship dissolution in parents and non- parents: A new conceptual model and measure. Plos one, 15(10), e0239712. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239712

Mohammadi, R., Rezaei, M. and Soleymani, S. (2022). Lived experience of suicide attempt: A phenomenological study. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 43-56. https://doi.org/10.22077/qrbs.2022.5040.1004

Norona, J. C., Salvatore, J. F., Welsh, D. P., & Darling, N. (2014). Rejection sensitivity and adolescents’ perceptions of romantic interactions. Journal of Adolescence, 37(8), 1257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.09.003

Nowland, R., Talbot, R., & Qualter, P. (2018). Influence of loneliness and rejection sensitivity on threat sensitivity in romantic relationships in young and middle-aged adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 131, 185-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.047

Oliffe, J. L., Kelly, M. T., Gonzalez Montaner, G., Seidler, Z. E., Kealy, D., Ogrodniczuk, J. S., & Rice, S. M. (2022). Mapping men’s mental health help- seeking after an intimate partner relationship break-up. Qualitative Health Research, 32(10), 1464-1476. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323221110974

Oravecz, Z., Dirsmith, J., Heshmati, S., Vandekerckhove, J., & Brick, T. R. (2020). Psychological well- being and personality traits are associated with experiencing love in everyday life. Personality and Individual Differences, (153), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109620

Overholser, J. C. (2010). Psychotherapy that strives to encourage social interest: A simulated interview with alfred adler. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 20(4), 347-363. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022033

Pachauri, P., & Rathi, P. (2018). Problems faced by divorced women in their pre and post- divorce period: A sociological study with reference to district meerut. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(1), 207-212. https://www.academia.edu/71925533/Problems_faced_by_divorced_women_in_their_pre_and_post_divorce_period_A_sociological_study_with_reference_to_District_Meerut

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Designing qualitative studies, in qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed., pp. 230-246). Sage Publications. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319463

Raffagnino, R., & Puddu, L. (2018). Love styles in couple relationships: A literature review. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 6, 307-330. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2018.612027

Rajabi, S., & Nikpoor, N. (2018). Comparison of the effectiveness of the transactional analysis training and emotion regulation on the improvement of love trauma syndrome: Dealing with the problems caused by the separation and love break up. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 20(4), 17-28. https://doi.org/10.12740/APP/99970

Rhoades, G. K., Kamp Dush, C. M., Atkins, D. C., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2011). Breaking up is hard to do: the impact of unmarried relationship dissolution on mental health and life satisfaction. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(3), 366-374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023627

River, L. M., O’Reilly Treter, M., Rhoades, G. K., & Narayan, A. J. (2022). Parent- child relationship quality in the family of origin and later romantic relationship functioning: A systematic review. Family Process, 61(1), 259-277. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12650

Rokach, A. (2019). On love and loneliness, in the psychological journey to and from loneliness: Development, causes, and effects of social and emotional isolation (pp. 207-236). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2017-0-03510-3

Simmel, G. (2011). Georg simmel on individuality and social forms. University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226924694.001.0001

Spielmann, S. S., Joel, S., & Impett, E. A. (2019). Pursuing sex with an ex: Does it hinder breakup recovery? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(3), 691-702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1268-6

Stanley, S. M., Rhoades, G. K., & Whitton, S. W. (2010). Commitment: Functions, formation, and the securing of romantic attachment. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 2(4), 243-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2010.00060.x

Symoens, S., Colman, E., & Bracke, P. (2014). Divorce, conflict, and mental health: How the quality of intimate relationships is linked to post-divorce well- being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(3), 220-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12215

Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., & Tangney, J. P. (2007). The self- conscious emotions: Theory and research. Guilford Press. https://www.amazon.com/Self-Conscious-Emotions-Theory-Research/dp/1593854862

Valladares- Garrido, D., Zila- Velasque, J. P., Santander- Hernández, F. M., Guevara- Morales, M. A., Morocho-Alburqueque, N., Failoc-Rojas, V. E., … & Valladares- Garrido, M. J. (2024). Association between love breakup and suicidal ideation in peruvian medical students: A cross- sectional study during the covid- 19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1287036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1287036

Van der Watt, A. S. J., Kidd, M., Scheffler, F., Roos, A., Lesch, E., & Seedat, S. (2025). Factors associated with psychological distress following romantic relationship dissolutions and the role of attachment. Current Psychology, 44(23), 18286-18301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-025-08368-9

Van der Watt, A. S. J., Kidd, M., Roos, A., Lesch, E., & Seedat, S. (2023). Romantic relationship dissolutions are significantly associated with posttraumatic stress symptoms as compared to a DSM-5 Criterion A event: A case- case– control comparison. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2238585. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2238585

Van der Watt, A. S. J., Roos, A., Du Plessis, S., Bui, E., Lesch, E., & Seedat, S. (2022). An attachment theory approach to reframing romantic relationship breakups in university students: A narrative review of attachment, neural circuitry, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 21(2), 129-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332691.2021.1908197

Verhallen, A. M., Alonso Martínez, S., Renken, R. J., Marsman, J. B. C., & Ter Horst, G. J. (2022). Depressive symptom trajectory following romantic relationship breakup and effects of rumination, neuroticism and cognitive control. Stress and Health, 38(4), 653-665. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3123

Verhallen, A. M., Renken, R. J., Marsman, J. C., & Ter Horst, G. J. (2019). Romantic relationship breakup: An experimental model to study effects of stress on depression (-like) symptoms. PloS One, 14(5), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217320

Wadhawan, J., Srivastava, P., Agrawal, P., Jindal, P., Singh, D., Sharma, S., & Ahmed, S. (2020). Breakup among medical students: Aftermath and resumption. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 11(10). https://doi.org/10.37506/ijphrd.v11i10.11128

Wrosch, C., Bauer, I., & Scheier, M. F. (2005). Regret and quality of life across the adult life span: the influence of disengagement and available future goals. Psychology and Aging, 20(4), 657-670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.657

Yalom, I. D. (2020). Existential psychotherapy. Basic books. https://www.amazon.com/Existential-Psychotherapy-Irvin-D-Yalom/dp/0465021476

Yaman, N., Parlak, S., & Gül, F. Ö. (2017). Attachment need and fear of loneliness in close relationships. Lap Lambert Academic Publishing. https://www.amazon.com/Attachment-Need-Loneliness-Close-Relationships/dp/3330050195

Yoosefi, N., Amani, A., Asgari, R., & Soleymani, M. (2018). Prediction of love trauma and depression based on attachment styles of university students with emotional breakdown. Knowledge & Research in Applied Psychology, 18(4), 1-9. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/jsrp/Article/892777

Zamanshoar, E., Rezaeian, H., Hosseinian, S., & Abdollahi, A. (2022). Longing for my desirable Self: A thematic analysis of individuals’ heartbreak narratives. Journal of Counseling Research, 21(83), 47-84. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.2717400.1401.21.83.2.8

References
Adamczyk, K. (2018). Direct and indirect effects of relationship status through unmet need to belong and fear of being single on young adults romantic loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 124-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.011
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787
Asayesh, M. H., Qazinejad, N., & Bahonar, F. (2021). Explanation of the emotional reactions of girls with love trauma syndrome: A qualitative study. The Women and Families Cultural-Educational, 15(53), 125-154. https://cwfs.ihu.ac.ir/article_206019.html?lang=en
Bahonar, F., Asayesh, M., & Ghazinezhad, N. (2019). Explanation of behavioral reactions and comparisons girl students with love truma syndrome: A phenomenological study. Woman Cultural Psychology, 41(11), 111-134. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/jwc/Article/920360/FullText
Bengtsson, M. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001
Boon, S. D., Alibhai, A. M., & Deveau, V. L. (2011). Reflections on the costs and benefits of exacting revenge in romantic relationships. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 43(2), 128-137. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0022367
Brumbaugh, C. C., & Fraley, R. C. (2015). Too fast, too soon? An empirical investigation into rebound relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 32(1), 99-118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407514525086
Buss, D. M. (2006). Strategies of human mating. Psihologijske Teme, 15(2), 239-260. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-04636-003
Chung, M. C., & Hunt, L. J. (2014). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and well-being following relationship dissolution: Past trauma, alexithymia, suppression. Psychiatric Quarterly, 85(2), 155-176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-013-9280-4
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage publications. https://collegepublishing.sagepub.com/products/qualitative-inquiry-and-research-design-4-246896
Dindoost, L., Asadpour, I., Zahrakar, K., & Mohsenzadeh, F. (2023). A grounded theory analysis of the experience of repeated love failure among Iranian youth. Journal of Applied Psychological Research, 14(2), 39-68. https://japr.ut.ac.ir/article_93050.html?lang=en
Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327-1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327
Eastwick, P. W., Joel, S., Carswell, K., Molden, D. C., Finkel, E. J., & Blozis, S. A. (2023). Predicting romantic interest during early relationship development: A preregistered investigation using machine learning. European Journal of Personality, 37(3), 276-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/08902070221085877
Field, T., Diego, M., Pelaez, M., Deeds, O., & Delgado, J. (2009). Breakup distress in university students. Adolescence, 44(176), 705-727. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2010.13023
Fisher, H., & Jolly, A. (2004). Books and arts-why we love: The nature and chemistry of romantic love. Nature, 427(6973), 396-397. https://doi.org/10.1038/427396b
Ghafoori, A., Shariat Bagheri, M., & Salehi, K. (2025). Thematic and contextual analysis of the experience of love during adolescence: A systematic review. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences, 4(1), 179-200. https://qrbs.birjand.ac.ir/article_3525.html?lang=en
Gehl, K., Brassard, A., Dugal, C., Lefebvre, A., Daigneault, I., Francoeur, A., & Lecomte, T. (2024). Attachment and breakup distress: The mediating role of coping strategies. Emerging Adulthood, 12(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968231209232
Gómez- López, M., Viejo, C., & Ortega- Ruiz, R. (2019). Well- being and romantic relationships: A systematic review in adolescence and emerging adulthood. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(13), 2415. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132415
Goodwin, R. (2013). Personal relationships across cultures. Routledge. https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/personal-relationships-across-cultures/
Hatfield, E. C., Singelis, T., Levine, T., Bachman, G., Muto, K., & Choo, P. (2007). Love schemas, preferences in romantic partners, and reactions to commitment. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 1(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v1i1.2
Hatfield, E., Rapson, R. L., & Martel, L. D. (2002). Passionate love and sexual desire. Stability and Change in Relationships, 306-324. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511499876.017
Janardhana, N., & Manjula, B. (2017). Adolescent girls in care and protection framework for their romantic relationship. Institutionalised Children Explorations and Beyond, 4(1), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/2349301120170104
Karandashev, V. (2015). A cultural perspective on romantic love. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1135
Kelly, B. D. (2018). Love as delusion, delusions of love: erotomania, narcissism and shame. Medical Humanities, 44(1), 15-19. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2017-011198
Landis, D., & O’Shea III, W. A. (2000). Cross- cultural aspects of passionate love: An individual differences analysis. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology, 31(6), 752-777. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031006005
Larson, G. M., & Sbarra, D. A. (2015). Participating in research on romantic breakups promotes emotional recovery via changes in self- concept clarity. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(4), 399-406. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614563085
Leary, M. R. (2015). Emotional responses to interpersonal rejection. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(4), 435-441. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.4/mleary
Lee, J. A. (1977). A typology of styles of loving. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3(2), 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727700300204
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications. https://www.amazon.com/Naturalistic-Inquiry-Yvonna-S-Lincoln/dp/0803924313
Liveri, K., Dagla, M., Sarantaki, A., Orovou, E., Antoniou, E., & Orovou, E. (2023). Abuse of girls during childhood and its impacts on the health of their adult lives: A systematic review. Cureus, 15(2), e34981. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.34981
Manteqi, M. (2011). The psychology of passionate love. Be’sat. https://ketab.ir/Book/BEADB01B-C8E4-42F9-8292-EA9E67279557
Mason, A. E., Sbarra, D. A., Bryan, A. E. B., & Lee, L. A. (2012). Staying connected when coming apart: The psychological correlates of contact and sex with an ex- partner. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31(5), 488-507. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2012.31.5.488
Millings, A., Hirst, S. L., Sirois, F., & Houlston, C. (2020). Emotional adaptation to relationship dissolution in parents and non- parents: A new conceptual model and measure. Plos one, 15(10), e0239712. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239712
Mohammadi, R., Rezaei, M. and Soleymani, S. (2022). Lived experience of suicide attempt: A phenomenological study. Qualitative Research in Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 43-56. https://doi.org/10.22077/qrbs.2022.5040.1004
Norona, J. C., Salvatore, J. F., Welsh, D. P., & Darling, N. (2014). Rejection sensitivity and adolescents’ perceptions of romantic interactions. Journal of Adolescence, 37(8), 1257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.09.003
Nowland, R., Talbot, R., & Qualter, P. (2018). Influence of loneliness and rejection sensitivity on threat sensitivity in romantic relationships in young and middle-aged adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 131, 185-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.047
Oliffe, J. L., Kelly, M. T., Gonzalez Montaner, G., Seidler, Z. E., Kealy, D., Ogrodniczuk, J. S., & Rice, S. M. (2022). Mapping men’s mental health help- seeking after an intimate partner relationship break-up. Qualitative Health Research, 32(10), 1464-1476. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323221110974
Oravecz, Z., Dirsmith, J., Heshmati, S., Vandekerckhove, J., & Brick, T. R. (2020). Psychological well- being and personality traits are associated with experiencing love in everyday life. Personality and Individual Differences, (153), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109620
Overholser, J. C. (2010). Psychotherapy that strives to encourage social interest: A simulated interview with alfred adler. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 20(4), 347-363. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022033
Pachauri, P., & Rathi, P. (2018). Problems faced by divorced women in their pre and post- divorce period: A sociological study with reference to district meerut. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(1), 207-212. https://www.academia.edu/71925533/Problems_faced_by_divorced_women_in_their_pre_and_post_divorce_period_A_sociological_study_with_reference_to_District_Meerut
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Designing qualitative studies, in qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed., pp. 230-246). Sage Publications. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319463
Raffagnino, R., & Puddu, L. (2018). Love styles in couple relationships: A literature review. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 6, 307-330. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2018.612027
Rajabi, S., & Nikpoor, N. (2018). Comparison of the effectiveness of the transactional analysis training and emotion regulation on the improvement of love trauma syndrome: Dealing with the problems caused by the separation and love break up. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 20(4), 17-28. https://doi.org/10.12740/APP/99970
Rhoades, G. K., Kamp Dush, C. M., Atkins, D. C., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2011). Breaking up is hard to do: the impact of unmarried relationship dissolution on mental health and life satisfaction. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(3), 366-374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023627
River, L. M., O’Reilly Treter, M., Rhoades, G. K., & Narayan, A. J. (2022). Parent- child relationship quality in the family of origin and later romantic relationship functioning: A systematic review. Family Process, 61(1), 259-277. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12650
Rokach, A. (2019). On love and loneliness, in the psychological journey to and from loneliness: Development, causes, and effects of social and emotional isolation (pp. 207-236). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2017-0-03510-3
Simmel, G. (2011). Georg simmel on individuality and social forms. University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226924694.001.0001
Spielmann, S. S., Joel, S., & Impett, E. A. (2019). Pursuing sex with an ex: Does it hinder breakup recovery? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(3), 691-702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1268-6
Stanley, S. M., Rhoades, G. K., & Whitton, S. W. (2010). Commitment: Functions, formation, and the securing of romantic attachment. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 2(4), 243-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2010.00060.x
Symoens, S., Colman, E., & Bracke, P. (2014). Divorce, conflict, and mental health: How the quality of intimate relationships is linked to post-divorce well- being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(3), 220-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12215
Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., & Tangney, J. P. (2007). The self- conscious emotions: Theory and research. Guilford Press. https://www.amazon.com/Self-Conscious-Emotions-Theory-Research/dp/1593854862
Valladares- Garrido, D., Zila- Velasque, J. P., Santander- Hernández, F. M., Guevara- Morales, M. A., Morocho-Alburqueque, N., Failoc-Rojas, V. E., … & Valladares- Garrido, M. J. (2024). Association between love breakup and suicidal ideation in peruvian medical students: A cross- sectional study during the covid- 19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1287036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1287036
Van der Watt, A. S. J., Kidd, M., Scheffler, F., Roos, A., Lesch, E., & Seedat, S. (2025). Factors associated with psychological distress following romantic relationship dissolutions and the role of attachment. Current Psychology, 44(23), 18286-18301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-025-08368-9
Van der Watt, A. S. J., Kidd, M., Roos, A., Lesch, E., & Seedat, S. (2023). Romantic relationship dissolutions are significantly associated with posttraumatic stress symptoms as compared to a DSM-5 Criterion A event: A case- case– control comparison. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2238585. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2238585
Van der Watt, A. S. J., Roos, A., Du Plessis, S., Bui, E., Lesch, E., & Seedat, S. (2022). An attachment theory approach to reframing romantic relationship breakups in university students: A narrative review of attachment, neural circuitry, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 21(2), 129-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332691.2021.1908197
Verhallen, A. M., Alonso Martínez, S., Renken, R. J., Marsman, J. B. C., & Ter Horst, G. J. (2022). Depressive symptom trajectory following romantic relationship breakup and effects of rumination, neuroticism and cognitive control. Stress and Health, 38(4), 653-665. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3123
Verhallen, A. M., Renken, R. J., Marsman, J. C., & Ter Horst, G. J. (2019). Romantic relationship breakup: An experimental model to study effects of stress on depression (-like) symptoms. PloS One, 14(5), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217320
Wadhawan, J., Srivastava, P., Agrawal, P., Jindal, P., Singh, D., Sharma, S., & Ahmed, S. (2020). Breakup among medical students: Aftermath and resumption. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 11(10). https://doi.org/10.37506/ijphrd.v11i10.11128
Wrosch, C., Bauer, I., & Scheier, M. F. (2005). Regret and quality of life across the adult life span: the influence of disengagement and available future goals. Psychology and Aging, 20(4), 657-670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.657
Yalom, I. D. (2020). Existential psychotherapy. Basic books. https://www.amazon.com/Existential-Psychotherapy-Irvin-D-Yalom/dp/0465021476
Yaman, N., Parlak, S., & Gül, F. Ö. (2017). Attachment need and fear of loneliness in close relationships. Lap Lambert Academic Publishing. https://www.amazon.com/Attachment-Need-Loneliness-Close-Relationships/dp/3330050195
Yoosefi, N., Amani, A., Asgari, R., & Soleymani, M. (2018). Prediction of love trauma and depression based on attachment styles of university students with emotional breakdown. Knowledge & Research in Applied Psychology, 18(4), 1-9. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/jsrp/Article/892777
Zamanshoar, E., Rezaeian, H., Hosseinian, S., & Abdollahi, A. (2022). Longing for my desirable Self: A thematic analysis of individuals’ heartbreak narratives. Journal of Counseling Research, 21(83), 47-84. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.2717400.1401.21.83.2.8

  • Receive Date 11 October 2025
  • Revise Date 07 January 2026
  • Accept Date 26 January 2026